Global Warming Causes

Cpv Hydrogen Hybrid

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Preface......................................................................................................................vii

1. Renewable Energy and the Hydrogen Economy...............................................1

Krishnan Rajeshwar, Robert McConnell, Kevin Harrison, and Stuart Licht

1 Renewable Energy and the Terawatt Challenge............................................1

2 Hydrogen as a Fuel of the Future..................................................................3

3 Solar Energy and the Hydrogen Economy..................................................11

4 Water Splitting and Photosynthesis.............................................................12

5 Completing the Loop: Fuel Cells.................................................................14

6 Concluding Remarks...................................................................................16

References...................................................................................................16

2. The Solar Resource............................................................................................19

Daryl R. Myers

1 Introduction: Basic Properties of the Sun....................................................19

2 The Spectral Distribution of the Sun as a Radiation Source........................20

3 The Earth's Atmosphere as a Filter..............................................................22

4 Utilization of Solar Spectral Regions: Hydrogen Generation" href="/solar-hydrogen-generation/utilization-of-solar-spectral-regions-spectral-response-of-materials.html">Spectral Response of

Materials......................................................................................................25

5 Reference Spectral Distributions.................................................................32

6 Summary.....................................................................................................38

References...................................................................................................38

3. Electrolysis of Water..........................................................................................41

Kevin Harrison and Johanna Ivy Levene

1 Introduction.................................................................................................41

2 Electrolysis of Water...................................................................................43

2.1 Alkaline..........................................................................................44

2.2 Proton Exchange Membrane...........................................................45

3 Fundamentals of Water Electrolysis............................................................50

3.1 First Principles................................................................................50

3.2 Overpotentials.................................................................................52

4 Commercial Electrolyzer Technologies......................................................54

5 Electrolysis System.....................................................................................55

5.1 Energy Efficiency...........................................................................56

5.2 Electricity Costs..............................................................................58

6 Opportunities for Renewable Energy..........................................................59

7 Conclusions.................................................................................................60

References...................................................................................................61

4. A Solar Concentrator Pathway to Low-Cost Electrolytic Hydrogen............65

Robert McConnell

1 Direct Conversion of Concentrated Sunlight to Electricity.........................65

2 The CPV Market.........................................................................................66

3 Higher and Higher Conversion Efficiencies................................................69

4 CPV Reliability...........................................................................................72

5 Following in Wind Energy's Footsteps.......................................................73

6 Low-Cost Hydrogen from Hybrid CPV Systems........................................75

7 Describing the Hybrid CPV System............................................................76

8 Discussion...................................................................................................81

9 Hydrogen Vision Using Hybrid Solar Concentrators..................................82

10 Conclusions.................................................................................................83

Acknowledgements .....................................................................................84

References ...................................................................................................84

5. Thermochemical and Thermal/Photo Hybrid Hybrid Water Splitting Solar Hydrogen Generation" href="/solar-hydrogen-generation/comparison-of-solar-electrochemical-thermal-hybrid-water-splitting.html">Solar Water Splitting............87

Stuart Licht

1 Introduction to Solar Thermal Formation of Hydrogen...............................87

1.1 Comparison of Solar Electrochemical, Thermal & Hybrid

Water Splitting................................................................................87

2 Direct Solar Thermal Water Splitting to Generate Hydrogen Fuel.............90

2.1 Development of Direct Solar Thermal Hydrogen...........................90

2.2 Theory of Direct Solar Thermal Hydrogen Generation..................91

2.3 Direct Solar Thermal Hydrogen Processes.....................................92

3 Indirect (Multi-step) Solar Thermal Water Splitting to Generate

Hydrogen Fuel.............................................................................................94

3. 1 Historical Development of Multi-Step Thermal Processes for Water Electrolysis....................................................................94

3.2 Comparison of Multi-step Indirect Solar Thermal

Hydrogen Processes........................................................................96

3.3 High-Temperature, Indirect-Solar Thermal Hydrogen

Processes.........................................................................................96

4 Hybrid Solar Thermal/Electrochemical/Photo (STEP) Water

Splitting.......................................................................................................99

4.1 Historical Development of Hybrid Thermal Processes..................99

4.2 Theory of Hybrid Solar Hydrogen Generation...............................99

4.3 Elevated Temperature Solar Hydrogen Processes and Components..................................................................................111

5 Future Outlook and Concluding Remarks.................................................116

References.................................................................................................116

6. Molecular Approaches to Photochemical Splitting of Water.......................123

Frederick M. MacDonnell

1 Scope.........................................................................................................123

2 Fundamental Principles.............................................................................124

3 Nature's Photosynthetic Machinery...........................................................125

4 Design of Artificial Photosystems.............................................................129

5 The Ideal Sensitizer: Does Rubpy Come Close? ......................................133

5.1 Stability .......................................................................................133

5.2 Photophysics and Photochemistry...............................................136

6 Supramolecular Assemblies: Dyads, Triads and Beyond..........................138

6.1 Energy Transfer Quenching: Antenna Complexes.......................138

6.2 Bichromophores: Increasing Excited-State Lifetimes..................140

6.3 Reductive and Oxidative Quenching: Dyads and Triads

with Donors and Acceptors..........................................................142

6.4 Single versus Multi-Electron Processes........................................145

7. OER and HER Co-Catalysts......................................................................150

7.1 Mimicking the Oxygen Evolving Center: Water Oxidation Catalysts.......................................................................................150

7.2 The Hydrogen Evolving Reaction (HER): Hydrogen

Evolution Catalysts.......................................................................153

8. Future Outlook and Concluding Remarks......................................................154

Acknowledgements...................................................................................156

References.................................................................................................156

7. Hydrogen Generation from Irradiated Semiconductor-Liquid

Interfaces ..........................................................................................................167

Krishnan Rajeshwar

1 Introduction and Scope..............................................................................167

2 Types of Approaches.................................................................................170

3 More on Nomenclature and the Water Splitting Reaction Requirements.............................................................................................172

4 Efficiency of Photoelectrolysis..................................................................178

5 Theoretical Aspects...................................................................................180

6 Oxide Semiconductors...............................................................................183

6.1 Titanium Dioxide: Early Work ....................................................183

6.2 Studies on the Mechanistic Aspects of Processes at the TiO2-Solution Interface................................................................186

6.3 Visible Light Sensitization of TiO2...............................................186

6.4 Recent Work on TiO2 on Photosplitting of Water or on the Oxygen Evolution Reaction.........................................................187

6.5 Other Binary Oxides....................................................................190

6.6 Perovskite Titanates and Related Oxides.....................................192

6.7 Tantalates and Niobates................................................................197

6.8 Miscellaneous Multinary Oxides..................................................198

7 Nitrides, Oxynitrides and Oxysulfides......................................................200

8 Metal Chalcogenide Semiconductors........................................................202

8.1 Cadmium Sulfide..........................................................................202

8.2 Other Metal Chalcogenides..........................................................204

9 Group III-V Compound Semiconductors..................................................205

10 Germanium and Silicon.............................................................................206

11 Silver Halides............................................................................................208

12 Semiconductor Alloys and Mixed Oxides .................................................208

12.1 Semiconductor Composites ..........................................................208

13 Photochemical Diodes and Twin-Photosystem Configurations for

Water Splitting ..........................................................................................210

14 Other Miscellaneous Approaches and Hydrogen Generation from

Media Other than Water ............................................................................211

15 Concluding Remarks .................................................................................213

Acknowledgments .....................................................................................213

References .................................................................................................213

8. Photobiological Methods of Renewable Hydrogen Production....................229

Maria L. Ghirardi, Pin Ching Maness, and Michael Seibert

1 Introduction...............................................................................................229

2 Green Algae...............................................................................................230

2.1 Mechanism of Hydrogen Production ............................................230

2.2 Hydrogenase-Catalyzed H2 Production........................................ 233

2.3 [FeFe]-hydrogenases....................................................................234

3 Cyanobacteria............................................................................................235

3.1 Mechanisms of Hydrogen Production .........................................235

3.2 Hydrogenase-Catalyzed H2 Production .......................................236

3.3 [NiFe] -Hydrogenases....................................................................238

3.4 Nitrogenase-Catalyzed H2 Production .........................................240

3.5 Nitrogenases.................................................................................241

4. Other Systems............................................................................................242

4.1 Non-Oxygenic Purple, Non-Sulfur Photosynthetic Bacteria ........242

4.2 Mixed Light/Dark Systems..........................................................243

4.3 Bio-Inspired Systems....................................................................244

5 Scientific and Technical Issues ..................................................................245

5.1 General.........................................................................................245

5.2 Oxygen Sensitivity of [FeFe]-Hydrogenases................................246

5.3 Oxygen Sensitivity of [NiFe]-Hydrogenases................................248

5.4 Competition between Different Pathways for

Photosynthetic Reductants...........................................................249

5.5 Down-Regulation of Electron Transport Rates.............................250

5.6 Low-Light Saturation Properties of Photosynthetic

Organisms....................................................................................251

5.7 Photobioreactor and System Costs...............................................252

5.8 Genomics Approaches..................................................................254

6 Future Directions.......................................................................................254

Acknowledgments.....................................................................................255

References.................................................................................................255

9. Centralized Production of Hydrogen using a Coupled Water

Electrolyzer-Solar Photovoltaic System.........................................................273

James Mason and Ken Zweibel

1 Introduction...............................................................................................273

2 Description of a PV Electrolytic H2 Production and Distribution

System.......................................................................................................274

3 Capital Investment and Levelized Price Estimates....................................281

4 Sensitivity Analysis: H2 Production and PV Electricity Prices.................285

5 Economic Analysis of Second Generation (Year 31-Year 60) H2 Systems......................................................................................................289

6 Life Cycle Energy and GHG Emissions Analyses....................................294

6.1 Life Cycle Analysis Methods.......................................................294

6.2 Life Cycle Energy and GHG Emissions Analyses Results...........296

7 System Energy Flow/Mass/Balance Analysis...........................................296

8 Conclusions: Summary of Results and Suggestions for Future

Analysis.....................................................................................................298

Appendices................................................................................................305

1 Energy Units and CO2 Equivalent Emissions Estimates...............305

2 Levelized Price Estimates Derived by Net Present Value

Cash Flow Analysis......................................................................305

3 Adiabatic Compression Formula.................................................307

4 Deviations from DOE H2A Assumptions...................................308

5 Summary of Reviewer Comments with Responses......................309

References.................................................................................................312

Index.......................................................................................................................315

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